Head of the Carbon Family Known as the Basis of Life

Periodic table group

Carbon group (group 14)
Hydrogen Helium Lithium Glucinium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium Iodine Xenon Caesium Barium Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gilt Mercury (element) Thallium Atomic number 82 Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon Francium Radium Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium Rutherfordium Dubnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Nihonium Flerovium Moscovium Livermorium Tennessine Oganesson boron grouping ← → pnictogens
IUPAC group number 14 Proper noun by element carbon group Trivial name tetrels CAS grouping number (United states of america, pattern A-B-A) IVA old IUPAC number (Europe, pattern A-B) IVB
↓Period
two	Carbon (C) six Other nonmetal
three	Silicon (Si) 14 Metalloid
4	Germanium (Ge) 32 Metalloid
v	Tin (Sn) l Other metal
six	Pb (Pb) 82 Other metal
7	Flerovium (Fl) 114 Other metal
Legend primordial element constructed element Diminutive number color: black=solid
five t east

The carbon grouping is a periodic table group consisting of carbon (C), silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), tin (Sn), lead (Atomic number 82), and flerovium (Fl). Information technology lies inside the p-block.

In modern IUPAC notation, it is called group 14. In the field of semiconductor physics, it is all the same universally called grouping IV. The grouping was one time besides known as the tetrels (from the Greek give-and-take tetra, which means 4), stemming from the Roman numeral IV in the group names, or (non coincidentally) from the fact that these elements have four valence electrons (see below). They are also known as the crystallogens ^[i] or adamantogens.^[ii]

Characteristics [edit]

Chemical [edit]

Similar other groups, the members of this family bear witness patterns in electron configuration, especially in the outermost shells, resulting in trends in chemical behavior:

Z	Element	No. of electrons/shell
6	Carbon	2, 4
14	Silicon	2, 8, 4
32	Germanium	2, 8, eighteen, 4
50	Tin	2, 8, 18, 18, 4
82	Lead	ii, 8, 18, 32, xviii, 4
114	Flerovium	ii, 8, 18, 32, 32, 18, 4 (predicted)

Each of the elements in this group has 4 electrons in its outer beat out. An isolated, neutral group 14 atom has the due south² p² configuration in the ground state. These elements, specially carbon and silicon, have a stiff propensity for covalent bonding, which unremarkably brings the outer shell to eight electrons. Bonds in these elements often lead to hybridisation where singled-out s and p characters of the orbitals are erased. For unmarried bonds, a typical organization has four pairs of spⁱⁱⁱ electrons, although other cases be too, such equally 3 sp^two pairs in graphene and graphite. Double bonds are characteristic for carbon (alkenes, CO₂...); the aforementioned for π-systems in full general. The trend to lose electrons increases equally the size of the atom increases, as it does with increasing atomic number. Carbon alone forms negative ions, in the form of carbide (C^four−) ions. Silicon and germanium, both metalloids, each can form +iv ions. Tin and lead both are metals, while flerovium is a constructed, radioactive (its one-half life is very brusk, but 1.ix seconds) chemical element that may accept a few noble gas-like properties, though it is still most probable a postal service-transition metal. Can and pb are both capable of forming +2 ions. Although tin is chemically a metal, its α allotrope looks more like germanium than like a metal and information technology is a poor electric conductor.

Carbon forms tetrahalides with all the halogens. Carbon also forms many oxides such as carbon monoxide, carbon suboxide, and carbon dioxide. Carbon forms disulfides and diselenides.^[3]

Silicon forms several hydrides; ii of them are SiH₄ and Si₂H_vi. Silicon forms tetrahalides with fluorine, chlorine, bromine, and iodine. Silicon also forms a dioxide and a disulfide.^[4] Silicon nitride has the formula Si₃Due north₄.^[5]

Germanium forms five hydrides. The first two germanium hydrides are GeH₄ and Ge₂H_six. Germanium forms tetrahalides with all halogens except astatine and forms dihalides with all halogens except bromine and astatine. Germanium bonds to all natural single chalcogens except polonium, and forms dioxides, disulfides, and diselenides. Germanium nitride has the formula Ge_iiiDue north_iv.^[6]

Tin can forms two hydrides: SnH₄ and Sn_twoH₆. Tin forms dihalides and tetrahalides with all halogens except astatine. Tin forms chalcogenides with i of each naturally occurring chalcogen except polonium, and forms chalcogenides with two of each naturally occurring chalcogen except polonium and tellurium.^[7]

Lead forms one hydride, which has the formula PbH₄. Lead forms dihalides and tetrahalides with fluorine and chlorine, and forms a dibromide and diiodide, although the tetrabromide and tetraiodide of lead are unstable. Lead forms iv oxides, a sulfide, a selenide, and a telluride.^[8]

In that location are no known compounds of flerovium.^[9]

Physical [edit]

The humid points of the carbon group tend to get lower with the heavier elements. Carbon, the lightest carbon group element, sublimes at 3825 °C. Silicon's boiling bespeak is 3265 °C, germanium's is 2833 °C, tin can's is 2602 °C, and lead's is 1749 °C. Flerovium is predicted boil in -60 °C.^{[10] [xi]} The melting points of the carbon group elements have roughly the same tendency as their boiling points. Silicon melts at 1414 °C, germanium melts at 939 °C, tin melts at 232 °C, and atomic number 82 melts at 328 °C.^[12]

Carbon's crystal structure is hexagonal; at high pressures and temperatures information technology forms diamond (see below). Silicon and germanium have diamond cubic crystal structures, as does tin at low temperatures (below 13.two °C). Can at room temperature has a tetragonal crystal construction. Lead has a face-centered cubic crystal structure.^[12]

The densities of the carbon group elements tend to increase with increasing atomic number. Carbon has a density of 2.26 grams per cubic centimeter, silicon has a density of 2.33 grams per cubic centimeter, germanium has a density of five.32 grams per cubic centimeter. Tin has a density of 7.26 grams per cubic centimeter, and lead has a density of 11.3 grams per cubic centimeter.^[12]

The atomic radii of the carbon group elements tend to increment with increasing atomic number. Carbon'due south diminutive radius is 77 picometers, silicon's is 118 picometers, germanium's is 123 picometers, can'due south is 141 picometers, and lead's is 175 picometers.^[12]

Allotropes [edit]

Carbon has multiple allotropes. The most mutual is graphite, which is carbon in the form of stacked sheets. Some other form of carbon is diamond, just this is relatively rare. Amorphous carbon is a third allotrope of carbon; it is a component of soot. Another allotrope of carbon is a fullerene, which has the form of sheets of carbon atoms folded into a sphere. A fifth allotrope of carbon, discovered in 2003, is called graphene, and is in the form of a layer of carbon atoms arranged in a honeycomb-shaped germination.^{[5] [xiii] [14]}

Silicon has two known allotropes that exist at room temperature. These allotropes are known every bit the baggy and the crystalline allotropes. The amorphous allotrope is a brownish pulverization. The crystalline allotrope is grayness and has a metal luster.^[fifteen]

Tin has ii allotropes: α-can, also known as gray tin can, and β-tin can. Tin is typically found in the β-can form, a silvery metal. Even so, at standard pressure, β-tin converts to α-tin can, a gray pulverization, at temperatures below 13.two° Celsius/56° Fahrenheit. This can cause tin objects in cold temperatures to crumble to gray pulverisation in a procedure known equally tin pest or tin rot.^{[5] [16]}

Nuclear [edit]

At least 2 of the carbon grouping elements (tin and lead) have magic nuclei, meaning that these elements are more mutual and more than stable than elements that do not take a magic nucleus.^[16]

Isotopes [edit]

There are 15 known isotopes of carbon. Of these, three are naturally occurring. The most common is stable carbon-12, followed past stable carbon-13.^[12] Carbon-14 is a natural radioactive isotope with a half-life of 5,730 years.^[17]

23 isotopes of silicon accept been discovered. V of these are naturally occurring. The most common is stable silicon-28, followed by stable silicon-29 and stable silicon-30. Silicon-32 is a radioactive isotope that occurs naturally as a result of radioactive decay of actinides, and via spallation in the upper atmosphere. Silicon-34 besides occurs naturally every bit the outcome of radioactivity of actinides.^[17]

32 isotopes of germanium have been discovered. 5 of these are naturally occurring. The most mutual is the stable isotope germanium-74, followed by the stable isotope germanium-72, the stable isotope germanium-70, and the stable isotope germanium-73. The isotope germanium-76 is a primordial radioisotope.^[17]

40 isotopes of tin can have been discovered. 14 of these occur in nature. The most common is tin-120, followed by tin can-118, tin-116, can-119, tin-117, tin-124, tin-122, tin-112, and tin can-114: all of these are stable. Tin also has four radioisotopes that occur as the upshot of the radioactive decay of uranium. These isotopes are tin-121, can-123, tin-125, and tin-126.^[17]

38 isotopes of lead have been discovered. nine of these are naturally occurring. The well-nigh common isotope is pb-208, followed past lead-206, lead-207, and lead-204: all of these are stable. 4 isotopes of lead occur from the radioactive decay of uranium and thorium. These isotopes are atomic number 82-209, lead-210, atomic number 82-211, and lead-212.^[17]

half dozen isotopes of flerovium (flerovium-284, flerovium-285, flerovium-286, flerovium-287, flerovium-288, and flerovium-289) accept been discovered. None of these are naturally occurring. Flerovium's nearly stable isotope is flerovium-289, which has a half-life of two.6 seconds.^[17]

Occurrence [edit]

Carbon accumulates as the effect of stellar fusion in nigh stars, fifty-fifty small ones.^[16] Carbon is present in the earth's crust in concentrations of 480 parts per million, and is present in seawater at concentrations of 28 parts per million. Carbon is nowadays in the temper in the form of carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and methyl hydride. Carbon is a key constituent of carbonate minerals, and is in hydrogen carbonate, which is common in seawater. Carbon forms 22.eight% of a typical human.^[17]

Silicon is present in the earth'due south crust at concentrations of 28%, making information technology the 2nd most abundant element in that location. Silicon's concentration in seawater can vary from thirty parts per billion on the surface of the ocean to 2000 parts per billion deeper down. Silicon grit occurs in trace amounts in globe's temper. Silicate minerals are the most common blazon of mineral on earth. Silicon makes up 14.3 parts per million of the human body on average.^[17] Simply the largest stars produce silicon via stellar fusion.^[sixteen]

Germanium makes up 2 parts per million of the earth'southward chaff, making information technology the 52nd virtually abundant chemical element there. On average, germanium makes upwardly ane function per million of soil. Germanium makes up 0.5 parts per trillion of seawater. Organogermanium compounds are also found in seawater. Germanium occurs in the human trunk at concentrations of 71.4 parts per billion. Germanium has been establish to be in some very faraway stars.^[17]

Tin makes up 2 parts per million of the world's chaff, making it the 49th most abundant element there. On average, tin makes upwardly 1 office per one thousand thousand of soil. Tin exists in seawater at concentrations of 4 parts per trillion. Tin makes up 428 parts per billion of the human torso. Tin (4) oxide occurs at concentrations of 0.i to 300 parts per million in soils.^[17] Tin also occurs in concentrations of one part per thousand in igneous rocks.^[18]

Pb makes upward xiv parts per one thousand thousand of the world's crust, making it the 36th well-nigh abundant element there. On boilerplate, lead makes upward 23 parts per 1000000 of soil, but the concentration can reach 20000 parts per million (2 percent) near quondam atomic number 82 mines. Atomic number 82 exists in seawater at concentrations of 2 parts per trillion. Lead makes up 1.vii parts per million of the human body by weight. Act releases more lead into the surroundings than any other metallic.^[17]

Flerovium only occurs in particle accelerators.^[17]

History [edit]

Discoveries and uses in antiquity [edit]

Carbon, tin, and lead are a few of the elements well known in the ancient world, together with sulfur, iron, copper, mercury, argent, and gold.^[19]

Silicon as silica in the class of rock crystal was familiar to the predynastic Egyptians, who used it for chaplet and minor vases; to the early on Chinese; and probably to many others of the ancients. The manufacture of glass containing silica was carried out both past the Egyptians – at least as early as 1500 BCE – and by the Phoenicians. Many of the naturally occurring compounds or silicate minerals were used in various kinds of mortar for structure of dwellings by the earliest people.

The origins of tin seem to exist lost in history. It appears that bronzes, which are alloys of copper and tin, were used by prehistoric man some time before the pure metal was isolated. Bronzes were common in early Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley, Egypt, Crete, Israel, and Republic of peru. Much of the tin can used by the early on Mediterranean peoples patently came from the Scilly Isles and Cornwall in the British Isles,^[20] where mining of the metal dates from well-nigh 300–200 BCE. Tin mines were operating in both the Inca and Aztec areas of South and Central America earlier the Castilian conquest.

Lead is mentioned often in early on Biblical accounts. The Babylonians used the metal equally plates on which to tape inscriptions. The Romans used it for tablets, water pipes, coins, and even cooking utensils; indeed, as a result of the last use, pb poisoning was recognized in the fourth dimension of Augustus Caesar. The compound known every bit white lead was apparently prepared as a decorative paint at least as early as 200 BCE.

Modernistic discoveries [edit]

Amorphous elemental silicon was first obtained pure in 1824 by the Swedish pharmacist Jöns Jacob Berzelius; impure silicon had already been obtained in 1811. Crystalline elemental silicon was not prepared until 1854, when it was obtained as a product of electrolysis.

Germanium is 1 of three elements the beingness of which was predicted in 1869 by the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev when he get-go devised his periodic table. Nonetheless, the element was non really discovered for some fourth dimension. In September 1885, a miner discovered a mineral sample in a silver mine and gave information technology to the mine director, who determined that it was a new mineral and sent the mineral to Clemens A. Winkler. Winkler realized that the sample was 75% silvery, 18% sulfur, and 7% of an undiscovered element. After several months, Winkler isolated the chemical element and determined that it was element 32.^[17]

The start endeavour to discover flerovium (then referred to as "element 114") was in 1969, at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research, merely it was unsuccessful. In 1977, researchers at the Joint Constitute for Nuclear Research bombarded plutonium-244 atoms with calcium-48, but were once more unsuccessful. This nuclear reaction was repeated in 1998, this fourth dimension successfully.^[17]

Etymologies [edit]

The word "carbon" comes from the Latin word carbo, meaning "charcoal".The give-and-take "silicon" comes from the Latin word silex or silicis, which means "flint". The word "germanium" comes from the word germania, which is Latin for Frg, the country where germanium was discovered. The word "tin" derives from the Onetime English give-and-take tin. The word "lead" comes from the Onetime English word lead.^[17] Flerovium was named subsequently Georgy Flyorov and his Institute.

Applications [edit]

Carbon is most commonly used in its amorphous course. In this form, carbon is used for steelmaking, as carbon black, as a filling in tires, in respirators, and every bit activated charcoal. Carbon is also used in the grade of graphite is unremarkably used every bit the pb in pencils. Diamond, another class of carbon, is commonly used in jewelry.^[17] Carbon fibers are used in numerous applications, such as satellite struts, because the fibers are highly strong yet elastic.^[21]

Silicon dioxide has a wide variety of applications, including toothpaste, construction fillers, and silica is a major component of drinking glass. 50% of pure silicon is devoted to the manufacture of metallic alloys. 45% of silicon is devoted to the manufacture of silicones. Silicon is also commonly used in semiconductors since the 1950s.^{[xvi] [21]}

Germanium was used in semiconductors until the 1950s, when it was replaced by silicon.^[16] Radiation detectors contain germanium. Germanium dioxide is used in fiber optics and wide-angle camera lenses. A small amount of germanium mixed with silver tin can make silver tarnish-proof. The resulting blend is known as argentium.^[17]

Solder is the most important utilise of tin; 50% of all tin produced goes into this application. twenty% of all tin produced is used in tin can plate. 20% of tin can is besides used past the chemical industry. Can is also a constituent of numerous alloys, including pewter. Tin (Iv) oxide has been commonly used in ceramics for thousands of years. Cobalt stannate is a tin compound which is used every bit a cerulean bluish pigment.^[17]

lxxx% of all lead produced goes into pb–acid batteries. Other applications for lead include weights, pigments, and shielding against radioactive materials. Atomic number 82 was historically used in gasoline in the form of tetraethyllead, just this application has been discontinued due to concerns of toxicity.^[22]

Production [edit]

Carbon'south allotrope diamond is produced mostly by Russia, Botswana, Congo, Canada, and South Africa, Bharat. fourscore% of all synthetic diamonds are produced by Russian federation. Prc produces seventy% of the earth'southward graphite. Other graphite-mining countries are Brazil, Canada, and Mexico.^[17]

Silicon can be produced by heating silica with carbon.^[21]

There are some germanium ores, such as germanite, but these are not mined on account of being rare. Instead, germanium is extracted from the ores of metals such as zinc. In Russia and China, germanium is also separated from coal deposits. Germanium-containing ores are start treated with chlorine to form germanium tetrachloride, which is mixed with hydrogen gas. So the germanium is farther refined by zone refining. Roughly 140 metric tons of germanium are produced each year.^[17]

Mines output 300,000 metric tons of tin each year. China, Indonesia, Peru, Bolivia, and Brazil are the main producers of tin can. The method by which tin is produced is to heat the tin mineral cassiterite (SnO_two) with coke.^[17]

The most normally mined lead ore is galena (pb sulfide). 4 million metric tons of lead are newly mined each yr, mostly in Red china, Australia, the U.s.a., and Peru. The ores are mixed with coke and limestone and roasted to produce pure atomic number 82. Nigh pb is recycled from lead batteries. The total amount of lead ever mined past humans amounts to 350 one thousand thousand metric tons.^[17]

Biological function [edit]

Carbon is a cardinal element to all known life. It is in all organic compounds, for example, DNA, steroids, and proteins.^[5] Carbon'due south importance to life is primarily due to its power to class numerous bonds with other elements.^[xvi] At that place are 16 kilograms of carbon in a typical seventy-kilogram human.^[17]

Silicon-based life'southward feasibility is commonly discussed. However, it is less able than carbon to course elaborate rings and chains.^[five] Silicon in the form of silicon dioxide is used past diatoms and sea sponges to grade their cell walls and skeletons. Silicon is essential for bone growth in chickens and rats and may also be essential in humans. Humans consume on average betwixt xx and 1200 milligrams of silicon per day, more often than not from cereals. In that location is one gram of silicon in a typical 70-kilogram man.^[17]

A biological office for germanium is not known, although it does stimulate metabolism. In 1980, germanium was reported past Kazuhiko Asai to benefit health, simply the claim has not been proven. Some plants have upwardly germanium from the soil in the grade of germanium oxide^{[ clarification needed ]}. These plants, which include grains and vegetables contain roughly 0.05 parts per meg of germanium. The estimated human intake of germanium is 1 milligram per day. There are v milligrams of germanium in a typical 70-kilogram human.^[17]

Tin has been shown to be essential for proper growth in rats, but there is, as of 2013, no evidence to point that humans need tin in their diet. Plants do not require tin can. Withal, plants practise collect can in their roots. Wheat and maize comprise seven and three parts per million respectively. However, the level of tin in plants can reach 2000 parts per meg if the plants are well-nigh a tin smelter. On average, humans consume 0.3 milligrams of tin per solar day. There are 30 milligrams of tin in a typical seventy-kilogram homo.^[17]

Lead has no known biological role, and is in fact highly toxic, but some microbes are able to survive in atomic number 82-contaminated environments. Some plants, such every bit cucumbers comprise upwardly to tens of parts per million of lead. There are 120 milligrams of lead in a typical 70-kilogram human.^[17]

Flerovium has no biological role and instead is establish and made only in particle accelerators.

Toxicity [edit]

Elemental carbon is not generally toxic, but many of its compounds are, such equally carbon monoxide and hydrogen cyanide. However, carbon dust can be dangerous considering information technology lodges in the lungs in a style similar to asbestos.^[17]

Silicon minerals are not typically poisonous. However, silicon dioxide grit, such equally that emitted by volcanoes tin crusade adverse health effects if information technology enters the lungs.^[16]

Germanium tin can interfere with such enzymes as lactate and alcohol dehydrogenase. Organic germanium compounds are more toxic than inorganic germanium compounds. Germanium has a low degree of oral toxicity in animals. Severe germanium poisoning tin cause death by respiratory paralysis.^[23]

Some tin compounds are toxic to ingest, but nigh inorganic compounds of tin are considered nontoxic. Organic tin compounds, such as trimethyl can and triethyl tin are highly toxic, and tin can disrupt metabolic processes inside cells.^[17]

Lead and its compounds, such every bit lead acetates are highly toxic. Atomic number 82 poisoning can cause headaches, breadbasket pain, constipation, and gout.^[17]

Flerovium is too radioactive to test if its toxic or not although its loftier radioactivity alone would be toxic.

References [edit]

1. ^ Liu, Ning; Lu, Na; Su, Yan; Wang, Pu; Quan, Xie (2019). "Fabrication of yard-C₃Northward₄/Ti_threeC₂ blended and its visible-light photocatalytic capability for ciprofloxacin deposition". Separation and Purification Technology. 211: 782–789. doi:10.1016/j.seppur.2018.10.027. Retrieved 17 August 2019.
2. ^ Westward. B. Jensen, The Periodic Law and Tabular array.
3. ^ Carbon compounds , retrieved January 24, 2013
4. ^ Silicon compounds , retrieved January 24, 2013
5. ^ ^{a b c d e} Greyness, Theodore (2011), The Elements
6. ^ Germanium compounds , retrieved Jan 24, 2013
7. ^ Tin can compounds , retrieved January 24, 2013
8. ^ Lead compounds , retrieved January 24, 2013
9. ^ Flerovium compounds , retrieved January 24, 2013
10. ^ Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine: Oganessian, Yu. Ts. (27 January 2017). "Discovering Superheavy Elements". Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Retrieved 21 April 2017.
11. ^ Seaborg, G. T. "Transuranium element". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2010-03-xvi .
12. ^ ^{a b c d e} Jackson, Marker (2001), Periodic Table Advanced
13. ^ Graphene , retrieved 20 January 2013
14. ^ Carbon:Allotropes, archived from the original on 2013-01-17, retrieved 20 January 2013
15. ^ Gagnon, Steve, The Element Silicon , retrieved Jan 20, 2013
16. ^ ^{a b c d e f 1000 h} Kean, Sam (2011), The Disappearing Spoon
17. ^ ^{a b c d eastward f thou h i j m l one thousand n o p q r s t u 5 w ten y z aa ab air-conditioning ad} Emsley, John (2011), Nature's Building Blocks
18. ^ tin (Sn), Encyclopædia Britannica, 2013, retrieved February 24, 2013
19. ^ Chemical Elements , retrieved 20 January 2013
20. ^ Online Encyclopædia Britannica, Tin
21. ^ ^{a b c} Galan, Mark (1992), Structure of Matter, ISBN0-809-49663-1
22. ^ Blum, Deborah (2010), The Poisoner's Handbook
23. ^ Risk Cess (PDF), 2003, archived from the original on January 12, 2012, retrieved January xix, 2013

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_group